Type restrictions are type annotations put to method arguments to restrict the types accepted by that method.
def add(x : Number, y : Number)
x + y
end
# Ok
add 1, 2 # Ok
# Error: no overload matches 'add' with types Bool, Bool
add true, false
Note that if we had defined add without type restrictions, we would also have gotten a compile time error:
def add(x, y)
x + y
end
add true, false
The above code gives this compile error:
Error in foo.cr:6: instantiating 'add(Bool, Bool)'
add true, false
^~~
in foo.cr:2: undefined method '+' for Bool
x + y
^
This is because when you invoke add, it is instantiated with the types of the arguments: every method invocation with a different type combination results in a different method instantiation.
The only difference is that the first error message is a little more clear, but both definitions are safe in that you will get a compile time error anyway. So, in general, it's preferable not to specify type restrictions and almost only use them to define different method overloads. This results in more generic, reusable code. For example, if we define a class that has a + method but isn't a Number, we can use the add method that doesn't have type restrictions, but we can't use the add method that has restrictions.
# A class that has a + method but isn't a Number
class Six
def +(other)
6 + other
end
end
# add method without type restrictions
def add(x, y)
x + y
end
# OK
add Six.new, 10
# add method with type restrictions
def restricted_add(x : Number, y : Number)
x + y
end
# Error: no overload matches 'restricted_add' with types Six, Int32
restricted_add Six.new, 10
Refer to the type grammar for the notation used in type restrictions.
A special type restriction is self:
class Person
def ==(other : self)
other.name == name
end
def ==(other)
false
end
end
john = Person.new "John"
another_john = Person.new "John"
peter = Person.new "Peter"
john == another_john #=> true
john == peter #=> false (names differ)
john == 1 #=> false (because 1 is not a Person)
In the previous example self is the same as writing Person. But, in general, self is the same as writing the type that will finally own that method, which, when modules are involved, becomes more useful.
As a side note, since Person inherits Reference the second definition of == is not needed, since it's already defined in Reference.
Note that self always represents a match against an instance type, even in class methods:
class Person
def self.compare(p1 : self, p2 : self)
p1.name == p2.name
end
end
john = Person.new "John"
peter = Person.new "Peter"
Person.compare(john, peter) # OK
You can use self.class to restrict to the Person type. The next section talks about the .class suffix in type restrictions.
Using, for example, Int32 as a type restriction makes the method only accept instances of Int32:
def foo(x : Int32)
end
foo 1 # OK
foo "hello" # Error
If you want a method to only accept the type Int32 (not instances of it), you use .class:
def foo(x : Int32.class)
end
foo Int32 # OK
foo String # Error
The above is useful for providing overloads based on types, not instances:
def foo(x : Int32.class)
puts "Got Int32"
end
def foo(x : String.class)
puts "Got String"
end
foo Int32 # prints "Got Int32"
foo String # prints "Got String"
You can specify type restrictions in splats:
def foo(*args : Int32)
end
def foo(*args : String)
end
foo 1, 2, 3 # OK, invokes first overload
foo "a", "b", "c" # OK, invokes second overload
foo 1, 2, "hello" # Error
foo() # Error
When specifying a type, all elements in a tuple must match that type. Additionally, the empty-tuple doesn't match any of the above cases. If you want to support the empty-tuple case, add another overload:
def foo
# This is the empty-tuple case
end
A simple way to match against one or more elements of any type is to use Object as a restriction:
def foo(*args : Object)
end
foo() # Error
foo(1) # OK
foo(1, "x") # OK
If you use a single uppercase letter as a type restriction, the identifier becomes a free variable:
def foo(x : T)
T
end
foo(1) #=> Int32
foo("hello") #=> String
That is, T becomes the type that was effectively used to instantiate the method.
A free variable can be used to extract the type parameter of a generic type within a type restriction:
def foo(x : Array(T))
T
end
foo([1, 2]) #=> Int32
foo([1, "a"]) #=> (Int32 | String)
To create a method that accepts a type name, rather than an instance of a type, append .class to a free variable in the type restriction:
def foo(x : T.class)
Array(T)
end
foo(Int32) #=> Array(Int32)
foo(String) #=> Array(String)
Free variables allow type inference to be used when creating generic types. Refer to the Generics section.